Selasa, 18 Desember 2012

Resume Bahasa Inggris


1.    MODALS
  • ~Can, Could and (be) able to~
A. We use can to say that something is possible or that somebody has the ability to do something.
We use can + infinitive (can do / can see etc.) :
  • We can see the lake from our bedroom window.
  • I can come and see you tomorrowif you like.
  • I’m afrain I can’t come to the party on Friday.
B. (Be) able to… is possible instead of can, but can is more usual :
  • Are you able to speak any foreign laguages?
But can has only two forms, can (present) and could (past). So sometimes it is necessary to use (be) able to… . Compare :
  • I can’t sleep
But        I haven’t been able to sleep recently. (can has no present perfect)
C. Could and was able to…
Sometimes could is the past of can. We use could especially with :
see          hear    smell    taste    feel      remember       understand
  • When we went into the house, we could smell burning.
  • She spoke in a very low voice, but I could understand what she said.
We also use could to say that somebody had the general ability or permission to do
something:
  • My grandfather could speak five languages.
  • We Were completely free. We could do what we wanted
The negative couldn’t (could not) is possible in all situations:
  • My grandfather couldn’t swim.
  • We tried hard but we coldn’t persuade them to come with us.
  • ~May and Might~
A. We use may or might to say that something is a posibility. Usually you can use may or moght, so you can say :
  • It may be true. or it might be true. (= perhaps it is true)
  • She might know. or She may know.
  • It might not be true. (= perhaps it isn’t true)
B. For the past we use may have (done) or might have (done) :
  • A:   I Wonder why Kay didn’t answer the phone.
B:    She may have been asleep. (= perhaps she was asleep)
  • A:   I can’t find my bag anywhere.
B:    You might have left in the shop. (= perhaps you left in the shop)
C. Sometimes could similar meaning to may and might :
  • The phone’s ringing. It could be Tim. (= it may/might be Tim)
  • You could have left Tour bagi n the shop. (= you may/might left it…)
  • ~Must and Have to~
A. We use must and have to to say that it is necessary to do something. Sometimes it doesn’t matter which you use :
  • Oh, it’s later than I thought. I must go. or I have to go.
B. You can use must to talk about the present or future, but not the past :
  • We must go now.
  • We must go tomorrow. (but not ‘we must go yesterday’)
You can use have to in all forms. For example :
  • I had to go to hospital. (past)
  • Have you ever had to go to hospital? (present perfect)
In question and negative sentences with have to, we normally use do/does/did :
  • What do I have to do to get a dring licence?
  • Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
  • ~Should~
A. You should do something  = it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do. You can use should to give advice or to Gide an opinion:
  • You look tired. You should go to bed.
  • The government should do more to help homeless people.
B. We also use should when something is not right or what we expect. For example :
  • I Wonder where Liz is. She should be here by now. ( = she isn’t here yet, and this is normal)
  • Those boys shouldn’t be playing  Football at this time. They should bea t school.
C. ‘You should have done something’. = you didn’t do it bit it would have been the
right to do :
  • It was a great party last night. You should have come. Why didn’t you? (= you didn’t come but it would have been good to come)
  • I’m feeling sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate. (= I ate too much chocolate)
D. Ought to…
You can use ought to instead of should in the sentences on this page. Note that we say ‘ought to do …’ (with to) :
  • Do you think I ought to apply for this job?
  • Jack ought not to go bed so late.
References : Raymond Murphy. cambridge university press. second edition. english grammar in use (the book from stikom’s library)














2.      CONJUNCTIONS
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.
The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
Many students are taught that certain conjunctions (such as "and", "but", and "so") should not begin sentences, although authorities such as the Chicago Manual of Style state that this teaching has "no historical or grammatical foundation"

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. In English the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These are not the only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including "and nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "or nor" (British), "neither" ("They don't gamble; neither do they smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble; no more do they smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have time").
Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do:
  • For presents a reason ("He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking far too long.").
  • And presents non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s) ("They gamble, and they smoke.").
  • Nor presents a non-contrasting negative idea ("They do not gamble nor do they smoke.").
  • But presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.").
  • Or presents an alternative item or idea ("Every day they gamble or they smoke.").
  • Yet presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.").
  • So presents a consequence ("He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.").

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six different pairs of correlative conjunctions:
  1. either...or
  2. not only...but (also)
  3. neither...nor (or increasingly neither...or)
  4. both...and
  5. whether...or
  6. just as...so
Examples:
  • You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.
  • Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.
  • Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
  • Both the cross country team and the swimming team are doing well.
  • Whether you stay or you go, it's your decision.
  • Just as Aussies love Aussie rules football, so many Canadians love ice hockey.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are helpful in writing paragraphs with an independent clause and a dependent clause. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while. Complementizers can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses (e.g., "I wonder whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time"). Some subordinating conjunctions (until and while), when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings.
In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either
Such languages in fact often lack conjunctions as a part of speech because:
  1. the form of the verb used is formally nominalised and cannot occur in an independent clause
  2. the clause-final conjunction or suffix attached to the verb is actually formally a marker of case and is also used on nouns to indicate certain functions. In this sense, the subordinate clauses of these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases.
In other West-Germanic languages like German or Dutch, the word order after a subordinating conjunction is different from the one in an independent clause, e.g., in Dutch want (for) is coordinating, but omdat (because) is subordinating. The clause after the coordinating conjunction has normal word order, but the clause after the subordinating conjunction has verb-final word order. Compare:
Hij gaat naar huis, want hij is ziek. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Hij gaat naar huis, omdat hij ziek is. ("He goes home because he is ill.")
Similarly, in German, "denn" (for) is coordinating, but "weil" (because) is subordinating:
Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Er geht nach Hause, weil er krank ist. ("He goes home because he is ill.")
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_%28grammar%29
























3.    ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also calledsubordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.
The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. Ininformal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples withwhose:
The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =
The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.
WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an example with when:
I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will never forget the day when I graduated.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.
WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.
2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)
2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)


References :









4.    Noun Clause
Noun Clause
  • Noun Clause adalah dependent clause yang berfungsi sebagai noun (kata benda).
  • Klausa kata benda ini dapat berfungsi sebagai subject maupun object didalam suatu clause atau phrase lain.
  • Karena berfungsi sebagai kata benda, maka dapat digantikan dengan pronounit“.
Contoh:
  • I forgot the fact. (noun)
  • I forgot it. (pronoun)
  • I forgot that the fact was very important. (noun clause)

Rumus Noun Clause
Noun clause dapat diawali oleh noun clause markers berupa question word, if atau whether, dan that. Adapun contoh noun clause pada clause lain beserta detail marker-nya dapat dilihat pada tabel sebagai berikut.
Marker
Detail
Contoh Noun Clause dalam Kalimat
Question Word
Question word:
what(ever), what (time, kind, day, etc),
who(ever),
whose,
whom(ever),
which(ever),
where(ever),
when(ever),
how (long, far, many times, old, etc)
The class listened carefully what the teacher instructed.
(Seluruh kelas mendengarkan dengan teliti apa yang guru instruksikan.)
The kitten followed wherever the woman went.
(Anak kucing mengikuti kemanapun wanita itu pergi.)
Many people imagine how many time the man was failed before success.
(Banyak orang membayangkan berapa kali pria itu gagal sebelum sukses.)
if atau whether
biasanya digunakan untuk kalimat jawaban dari pertanyaan yes-no question
Where does Leo live?
(Dimana leo tinggal?)I wonder if he lives in West Jakarta.
(Saya pikir dia tinggal di Jakarta Barat.)
Is Leo live on Dewi Sartika Street?
(Apakah Leo tinggal di jalan Dewi Sartika?)I don’t know if he live on Dewi Sartika Street or not.



atau
I don’t know whether or not he lives on Dewi Sartika street.
(Saya tidak tahu jika dia tinggal di jalan Sartika atau tidak.)
That
biasanya that-clause untuk mental activity. Berikut daftar verb pada main clause yang biasanya diikuti that-clause:assume, believe, discover, dream, guess, hear, hope, know, learn, notice, predict, prove, realize, suppose, suspect, think
I think that the group will arrive in an hour.
(Saya pikir rombongan itu akan tiba dalam satu jam.)
Many people proved that the man was a big liar.
(Banyak orang membuktikan bahwa pria itu pembohong besar.)

Fungsi Noun Clause
Berikut adalah contoh kalimat dari setiap fungsi noun clause.
Fungsi
Contoh Noun Clause dalam Kalimat
Subject of a Verb
What she cooked was delicious.
That today is his birthday is not right.
Subject complement
The fact is that she is smart and dilligent.
A teacher must be whoever is patient.
Object of a Verb
Diana believes that her life will be happier.
I want to know how Einstein thought.
Object of a preposition
The girl comes from where many people there live in poverty.
He will attend the party with whichever fits to his body.








5.    Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains a subject (explicit or implied) and a predicate, and it modifies a verb.
  • I saw Joe when I went to the store. (explicit subject I)
  • He sat quietly in order to appear polite. (implied subject he)
According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In these functions they are like adverbial phrases, but due to their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and Quirk,1990):
  • We left after the speeches ended. (adverbial clause)
  • We left after the end of the speeches. (adverbial prepositional phrase)
Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.
  • I like to fly kites for fun.
Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. For example:
  • Hardly had I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.
The adverbial clause in this sentence is "when the train started to leave the platform" because it is a subordinate clause and because it has the trigger word (subordinate conjunction) "when".

Kinds of adverbial clauses

kind of clause
common conjunctions
function
example
time clauses
when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.
These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.
Her goldfish died when she was young.
conditional clauses
if, unless, lest
These clauses are used to talk about a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences.
If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
purpose clauses
in order to, so that, in order that
These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.
They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
reason clauses
because, since, as, given
These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.
I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much.
result clauses
so...that
These clauses are used to indicate the result of something.
My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.
concession clauses
although, though, while
These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.
I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now.
place clauses
where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")
These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.
He said he was happy where he was.
Clause of Comparison
as
Adverb as is a clause which states comparison.
Johan can speak English as fluently as his teacher.
clauses of manner
as, like, the way
These clauses are used to talk about someone's behavior or the way something is done.
I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them.
Corgi Tail Wagging