1. MODALS
- ~Can, Could and (be) able
to~
A. We use can to say that
something is possible or that somebody has the ability to do something.
We use can
+ infinitive (can do / can see etc.) :
- We can see the lake from
our bedroom window.
- I can come and see you
tomorrowif you like.
- I’m afrain I can’t come to
the party on Friday.
B. (Be) able to… is
possible instead of can, but can is more usual :
- Are you able to speak any
foreign laguages?
But can
has only two forms, can (present) and could (past).
So sometimes it is necessary to use (be) able to… . Compare :
- I can’t sleep
But
I haven’t been able to sleep recently. (can has no present
perfect)
C. Could and was able to…
Sometimes could
is the past of can. We use could especially with :
see
hear smell
taste feel
remember understand
- When we went into the house, we
could smell burning.
- She spoke in a very low voice,
but I could understand what she said.
We also use
could to say that somebody had the general ability or permission to do
something:
- My grandfather could speak
five languages.
- We Were completely free. We could
do what we wanted
The negative
couldn’t (could not) is possible in all situations:
- My grandfather couldn’t swim.
- We tried hard but we coldn’t
persuade them to come with us.
- ~May and Might~
A. We use may or might to
say that something is a posibility. Usually you can use may or moght, so you
can say :
- It may be true. or
it might be true. (= perhaps it is true)
- She might know. or
She may know.
- It might not be true. (=
perhaps it isn’t true)
B. For the past we use may have
(done) or might have (done) :
- A: I Wonder why Kay
didn’t answer the phone.
B:
She may have been asleep. (= perhaps she was asleep)
- A: I can’t find my
bag anywhere.
B:
You might have left in the shop. (= perhaps you left in the shop)
C. Sometimes could similar
meaning to may and might :
- The phone’s ringing. It could
be Tim. (= it may/might be Tim)
- You could have left Tour bagi n
the shop. (= you may/might left it…)
- ~Must and Have to~
A. We use must and have to
to say that it is necessary to do something. Sometimes it doesn’t matter which
you use :
- Oh, it’s later than I thought.
I must go. or I have to go.
B. You can use must to talk about the
present or future, but not the past :
- We must go now.
- We must go tomorrow. (but
not ‘we must go yesterday’)
You can use
have to in all forms. For example :
- I had to go to hospital. (past)
- Have you ever had to go to
hospital? (present perfect)
In question
and negative sentences with have to, we normally use do/does/did
:
- What do I have to do to
get a dring licence?
- Karen doesn’t have to work
on Saturdays.
- ~Should~
A. You should do something
= it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do. You can use should
to give advice or to Gide an opinion:
- You look tired. You should
go to bed.
- The government should do
more to help homeless people.
B. We also use should when
something is not right or what we expect. For example :
- I Wonder where Liz is. She should
be here by now. ( = she isn’t here yet, and this is normal)
- Those boys shouldn’t be
playing Football at this time. They should bea t school.
C. ‘You should have done something’.
= you didn’t do it bit it would have been the
right to do
:
- It was a great party last
night. You should have come. Why didn’t you? (= you didn’t come but
it would have been good to come)
- I’m feeling sick. I shouldn’t
have eaten so much chocolate. (= I ate too much chocolate)
D. Ought to…
You can use ought
to instead of should in the sentences on this page. Note that we say
‘ought to do …’ (with to) :
- Do you think I ought to
apply for this job?
- Jack ought not to go bed
so late.
References : Raymond Murphy. cambridge university
press. second edition. english grammar in use (the book from stikom’s library)
2. CONJUNCTIONS
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or
CNJ)
is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse
connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap
with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a
"conjunction" must be defined for each language.
In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not
stand between the items it conjoins.The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).
Many students are taught that certain conjunctions (such as "and", "but", and "so") should not begin sentences, although authorities such as the Chicago Manual of Style state that this teaching has "no historical or grammatical foundation"
Coordinating
conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are
conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as
words, main clauses, or sentences. In English the mnemonic
acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, and so. These are not the
only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including "and
nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "or nor"
(British), "neither" ("They don't gamble; neither do they
smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble; no more do they
smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have
time").Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do:
- For presents a
reason ("He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking far
too long.").
- And presents
non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s) ("They gamble, and they
smoke.").
- Nor presents a
non-contrasting negative idea ("They do not gamble nor do they
smoke.").
- But presents a
contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.").
- Or presents
an alternative item or idea ("Every day they gamble or they
smoke.").
- Yet presents a
contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.").
- So presents a
consequence ("He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar to
celebrate.").
Correlative
conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join
words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six
different pairs of correlative conjunctions:- either...or
- not
only...but (also)
- neither...nor
(or increasingly neither...or)
- both...and
- whether...or
- just
as...so
- You either
do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.
- Not only is he
handsome, but he is also brilliant.
- Neither the
basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
- Both the cross
country team and the swimming team are doing well.
- Whether you stay or
you go, it's your decision.
- Just as Aussies
love Aussie rules football, so many Canadians love ice hockey.
Subordinating
conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are
helpful in writing paragraphs with an independent clause and a dependent clause.
The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after,
although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as
soon as, as though, because, before, if, in
order that, since, so, so that, than, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas,
wherever, and while. Complementizers
can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses (e.g., "I wonder
whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time"). Some
subordinating conjunctions (until and while), when used to introduce
a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings.In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either
- clause-final
conjunctions
(e.g., in Japanese), or
- suffixes attached
to the verb and not
separate words[6]
- the form of
the verb used is
formally nominalised and cannot occur in an independent clause
- the
clause-final conjunction or suffix attached to the verb is actually
formally a marker of case and is
also used on nouns to
indicate certain functions. In this sense, the subordinate clauses of
these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases.
Hij gaat naar huis, want
hij is ziek. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Hij gaat naar huis, omdat
hij ziek is. ("He goes home because he is ill.")
Similarly, in German, "denn" (for) is
coordinating, but "weil" (because) is subordinating:
Er geht nach Hause, denn
er ist krank. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")
Er geht nach Hause, weil
er krank ist. ("He goes home because he is ill.")
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_%28grammar%29
3. ADJECTIVE
CLAUSE
A sentence
which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence
which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses
are also calledsubordinate clauses.)
There are
three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses,
and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative
clauses.)
A.
Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do:
they modify nouns.
The
teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
It’s
a new car. (New is an adjective which
modifies car.)
The
car that she is driving is not hers.
(That
she is driving is an adjective clause which
modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject (she)
and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective
clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that
adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective
clauses always follow the nouns they modify.
B.
A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is
the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to
make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun
(or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two
examples:
The
book is on the table. + I like the book.
The
man is here. + The man wants the book.
2.
Delete the repeated noun and replace it
with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make
dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book
is on the table. + I like which
The man is
here. + who wants the book
3.
Move the relative pronoun to the
beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an
adjective clause.
The book
is on the table. + which I like
The man is
here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the
noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which
I like is on the table.
The
man who wants the book is here.
C.
The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who,
whom, that, which.
These
relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of
verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do
not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people.
It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be
the subject of a verb. Ininformal writing
(but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of
a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people.
It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be
the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject
of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals
or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It
can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of
a verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people,
animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can
also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot
follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are
the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative
pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns
and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It
can be part of a subject or part of an object
of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot
be omitted. Here are examples withwhose:
The man is
happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =
The
man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl
is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The
girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.
WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in +
month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an
example with when:
I will
never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will
never forget the day when I graduated.
The same
meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will
never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will
never forget the day that I graduated.
I will
never forget the day I graduated.
WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in +
city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at,
in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The
building is new. + He works in the building. =
The
building where he works is new.
The same
meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The
building in which he works is new.
The
building which he works in is new.
The
building that he works in is new.
The
building he works in is new.
D.
Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1.
A restrictive adjective clause contains
information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a
restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the
main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated
from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive;
all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another
example:
People who
can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.
2.
A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives
additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to
identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed
from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A
nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas.
The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive
adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive
clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who
couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.
E.
Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of
the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases
in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1.
RP + BE = 0
People who
are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living
in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary
applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary
applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)
2.
RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who
live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living
in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who
sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually
participate more. (phrase)
References :
4. Noun
Clause
Noun
Clause
- Noun Clause
adalah dependent clause yang berfungsi sebagai noun (kata
benda).
- Klausa kata benda ini dapat berfungsi sebagai subject
maupun object didalam suatu clause atau phrase
lain.
- Karena berfungsi sebagai kata benda, maka dapat
digantikan dengan pronoun “it“.
Contoh:
- I forgot the fact. (noun)
- I forgot it. (pronoun)
- I forgot that the fact was very important. (noun
clause)
Rumus
Noun Clause
Noun clause dapat diawali oleh noun clause markers berupa question
word, if atau whether, dan that. Adapun contoh noun
clause pada clause lain beserta detail marker-nya dapat
dilihat pada tabel sebagai berikut.
|
Marker
|
Detail
|
Contoh
Noun Clause dalam Kalimat
|
|
Question Word
|
Question word:
what(ever), what (time, kind, day, etc), who(ever), whose, whom(ever), which(ever), where(ever), when(ever), how (long, far, many times, old, etc) |
The class listened carefully what
the teacher instructed.
(Seluruh kelas mendengarkan dengan teliti apa yang guru instruksikan.) |
|
The kitten followed wherever
the woman went.
(Anak kucing mengikuti kemanapun wanita itu pergi.) |
||
|
Many people imagine how many
time the man was failed before success.
(Banyak orang membayangkan berapa kali pria itu gagal sebelum sukses.) |
||
|
if atau whether
|
biasanya digunakan untuk kalimat
jawaban dari pertanyaan yes-no question
|
Where does Leo live?
(Dimana leo tinggal?)I wonder if he lives in West Jakarta. (Saya pikir dia tinggal di Jakarta Barat.) |
|
Is Leo live on Dewi Sartika
Street?
(Apakah Leo tinggal di jalan Dewi Sartika?)I don’t know if he live on Dewi Sartika Street or not.
atau
I don’t know whether or not he
lives on Dewi Sartika street.
(Saya tidak tahu jika dia tinggal di jalan Sartika atau tidak.) |
||
|
That
|
biasanya that-clause untuk mental
activity. Berikut daftar verb pada main clause yang biasanya diikuti that-clause:assume,
believe, discover, dream, guess, hear, hope, know, learn, notice, predict,
prove, realize, suppose, suspect, think
|
I think that the group will
arrive in an hour.
(Saya pikir rombongan itu akan tiba dalam satu jam.) |
|
Many people proved that the man
was a big liar.
(Banyak orang membuktikan bahwa pria itu pembohong besar.) |
Fungsi
Noun Clause
Berikut adalah contoh kalimat dari
setiap fungsi noun clause.
|
Fungsi
|
Contoh
Noun Clause dalam Kalimat
|
|
What she cooked was delicious.
|
|
|
That today is his birthday is not right.
|
|
|
Subject complement
|
The fact is that she is smart
and dilligent.
|
|
A teacher must be whoever is
patient.
|
|
|
Object of a Verb
|
Diana believes that her life
will be happier.
|
|
I want to know how Einstein
thought.
|
|
|
The girl comes from where many
people there live in poverty.
|
|
|
He will attend the party with whichever
fits to his body.
|
5.
Adverbial
clause
An adverbial clause is a dependent
clause
that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains a subject (explicit or implied) and a predicate, and it modifies a verb.- I saw Joe when
I went to the store. (explicit subject I)
- He sat
quietly in order to appear polite. (implied
subject he)
- We left after
the speeches ended. (adverbial clause)
- We left after
the end of the speeches. (adverbial prepositional phrase)
- I like to
fly kites for fun.
- Hardly had
I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.
Kinds of
adverbial clauses
|
kind of clause
|
common conjunctions
|
function
|
example
|
|
time clauses
|
when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as,
until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?");
hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.
|
These clauses are used to say when something
happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.
|
Her goldfish died when she was young.
|
|
conditional clauses
|
if, unless, lest
|
These clauses are used to talk about a possible or
counterfactual situation and its consequences.
|
If they lose weight during an illness,
they soon regain it afterwards.
|
|
purpose clauses
|
in order to, so that, in order that
|
These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of
an action.
|
They had to take some of his land so that they
could extend the churchyard.
|
|
reason clauses
|
because, since, as, given
|
These clauses are used to indicate the reason for
something.
|
I couldn't feel anger against him because I
liked him too much.
|
|
result clauses
|
so...that
|
These clauses are used to indicate the result of
something.
|
My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey
home that the lid would not stay closed.
|
|
concession clauses
|
although, though, while
|
These clauses are used to make two statements, one
of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.
|
I used to read a lot although I don't get much
time for books now.
|
|
place clauses
|
where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc.
(conjunctions that answer the question "where?")
|
These clauses are used to talk about the location
or position of something.
|
He said he was happy where he was.
|
|
Clause of Comparison
|
as
|
Adverb as is a clause which states comparison.
|
Johan can speak English as fluently as his
teacher.
|
|
clauses of manner
|
as, like, the way
|
These clauses are used to talk about someone's
behavior or the way something is done.
|
I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to
do them.
|
